Історія міжнародних відносин та дипломатії (довестфальська доба)

Abstract

У пропонованому посібнику висвітлюються етапи історії міжнародних відносин від давнини до завершення загальноєвропейської Тридцятилітньої війни 1618–1648 рр., підписання доленосного Вестфальського миру, за результатами якого сформувалася перша в історії Вестфальська система міжнародних відносин. Вироблені під час укладання цього миру принципи до сьогодні залишаються основою міжнародних відносин. Висвітлюються процеси виникнення й еволюції дипломатії як однієї з двох основних форм реалізації зовнішньої політики держави, що з доби давнини протиставлялася іншій, насильницькій формі – війні. Узагальнюється історичний досвід міжнародної взаємодії різних народів і провідних держав усіх регіонів світу. Посібник розрахований як на студентів закладів вищої освіти, так і на широке коло читачів, яких цікавить історія дипломатії та міжнародних відносин.

The proposed textbook highlights the stages of the history of international relations from antiquity to the end of Thirty Years’ War of 1618-1648, the signing of the fateful Peace of Westphalia, which resulted in the formation of the first ever Westphalian system of international relations. The principles developed during the conclusion of this peace remain the basis of international relations to this day. The textbook outlines the processes of emergence and evolution of diplomacy as one of the two main forms of implementation of the state’s foreign policy, which has been opposed to another, violent form – war – since ancient times. The authors summarize the historical experience of international interaction between different nations and leading states of all regions of the world. The textbook considers the specifics of the organization of foreign policy departments at different historical stages and in different states, the process of gradual professionalization of a diplomat, features of the training of diplomatic personnel, the procedure for appointing ambassadors, and the reasons for the formation of the institution of permanent embassies. The authors of the textbook explain the meaning of the terms and concepts of «diplomacy», «ambassador», «balance of power», «letters of credence», «principle of inviolability», «negotiations», «rules of warfare», «state interest», etc. The text makes it clear why such means of medieval diplomacy as the threat of force, coercion, bribery, and persuasion have been used since ancient times. The metal of coins paved the way for the intentions of great conquerors as reliably as the metal of weapons, and for centuries there were no fewer people defeated by money than by the fury of armies. No wonder Alexander the Great’s father Philip II said: «No matter how fortified a city is, any donkey can take it, if, of course, it is loaded with gold.» And the richest banker in Europe, Jacob Fugger, after bribing German princes, wrote frankly to King Charles of Spain, who they had elected as their emperor: «It is clear as day that without my money, your imperial majesty would not have been able to obtain the Roman crown.» The textbook focuses on the gradual increase in the number of international actors. In addition to the traditional actors – states, in particular the world’s first empire, Assyria – religious movements, knightly and spiritual orders, unions of large cities, commercial companies, influential banks, etc. became leading players. The intensity of interstate relations was influenced by regional and intercontinental trade, marriage diplomacy, missionary activity, church congresses (councils), and secular congresses. Participants of such congresses promoted or hindered the signing of peace treaties, used secret, often insidious means to keep allies from excessive conquests, i.e. strengthening, and sometimes more willingly negotiated with open enemies rather than with them for what they considered to be their state interest. The authors examine objective and subjective factors that influenced the successes and failures of state representatives in international relations. Numerous examples are given of how seemingly defenceless but skilful diplomats could stop hordes of invaders ready to destroy everything in their path with mere words; how the frivolous behaviour of the most powerful rulers, who put their own whims above the interests of the state, lost not only their armies in battles but also their crowns and even their own lives; how the groundless suspicions of the rulers broke the fates of not only their diplomats, but also destroyed the future of their states; how intrigues among the courtiers deprived the country of the opportunity to make the only right foreign policy decision; how arrogance of great commanders turned their smiles into a pretext for the breakdown of negotiations and the crushing defeats of armies of thousands; how the almost hopeless situation of a country did not make panic, despair and indifference of the majority of its inhabitants a trap for the sanity and gifts of the last desperate patriots who were able to disrupt the seemingly fatal and inevitable course of military operations with their resistance; how foreigners sometimes showed more patriotism than their own citizens; how diseases and natural disasters seemed to protect almost defenseless states, and adultery in the royal family or insanity of the representative led to events that put an end to the history of the kingdom. Readers will learn how the soft voice of the doomed Byzantine diplomat, Priscus of Panium, resonated with the ruthless soul of the great conqueror, Attila, who commanded his invading army to stand down; how fate of a chicken nicknamed Rome interested the Roman Emperor Honorius more than the capture and plunder of the Eternal City of the same name by the Goths; how the German emperor’s violation of the right of the Czechs to freely practice their religion became the pretext for the first pan-European Thirty Years’ War, the number of victims in which was not much less than casualties of the World War I. The authors examine the processes of formation of the pan-European idea. Its stages were the Great Greek Colonization, the Roman Empire, and the attempts of Charlemagne and Otto I to revive it on a new feudal basis. Unfortunately, international treaties and even oaths on the cross, the Gospel, and relics did not deter politicians and generals from violations, and the knight’s code of chivalry was not always followed by those who were and are now perceived as models of honour and courage. The textbook proves that diplomacy has no place for inappropriate jokes and insults, because for thousands of years a thoughtless word could cause discontent, rebellion, and war, which had a huge impact on international relations in the entire region. For example, the last fragment of ancient Egyptian statehood, the Kingdom of Thebes, waged war against the Hyksos conquerors because of an insulting letter from the Hyksos king, in which he stated that hippos living in the water near Thebes prevented him from sleeping, even though this city was 800 km away from the Hyksos capital, Avaris! Outraged by this humiliation, the Egyptians started a war against the conquerors and liberated their country. Emir Timur accepted the challenge of Sultan Bayezid I of the Ottoman Empire, who boldly threatened in his message to rape all the women of the sultan’s harem; Timur not only defeated the Ottoman army, but also carried Bayezid around in a cage until he poisoned himself. At an international congress of famous astronomers, the King of Castile, Alfonso X the Wise, carelessly said: «If I had been present when the world was created, I would have advised God to create it in a simpler way.» These words of the mighty king caused outrage throughout the Christian world, and the deposed Alfonso was forced to flee to his enemies, the Moors, with whom he attempted in vain to reclaim the throne. The structure of the proposed textbook allows for a consistent consideration of three time periods of the pre-Westphalian organization of international relations in the world namely the ancient world (until the end of the 5th century), the Middle Ages (until the end of the 15th century), the period of pre-Westphalian colonialism, or the period of transition from the Middle Ages to the modern age (late 15th – mid-17th century). The chronological scope of the publication covers the states of Western, Central, and Eastern Europe, the Middle East, South, Central, and East Asia, North and South Africa, and North and South America. Chapters of the textbook are full of quotations from documents, the most important of which are: the contents of international treaties, historical records and chronicles, political and legal treatises, personal correspondence of public officials, their memoirs, texts of resolutions of church councils, papal bulls, embassy reports, etc. Examples are provided of common and unusual reasons for declaring wars, the conditions for ending them, the process of negotiating and preparing to sign bilateral and multilateral treaties. Readers will see how peace was not always more attractive than war, why Emperor Charles V, tired of wars for world hegemony, voluntarily abdicated at the height of his power, and why the powerful Sultan Yusuf Salah ed-Din, dying, ordered a messenger to carry his turban through the streets of Damascus immediately after his death with the words: «This is all that Salah-ed-Din, the great conqueror of the East, is taking to his grave!». We are hoping that although wars sometimes lasted for centuries, such as the almost 800-year-long Reconquista, the content of the textbook will still inspire readers with hope in the magical abilities of diplomats to make even the most desperate soldiers put down their spears, sheathe their swords, and silence the barrels of cannons and rifles.... The textbook is aimed at students in higher education institutions as well as a wide range of readers interested in the history of diplomacy and international relations.